Grammar
Parts of Speech
Nouns
Nouns are words that name people, places, things, or ideas. They can function as the subject or object in a sentence.
Common and Proper Nouns
Common Nouns:
- General names for a person, place, thing, or idea.
- Examples: dog, city, book, happiness.
- Not capitalized unless they start a sentence.
Proper Nouns:
- Specific names for a person, place, thing, or idea.
- Examples: Rover (dog’s name), New York, “To Kill a Mockingbird,” Buddhism.
- Always capitalized.
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
Concrete Nouns:
- Names things that can be experienced with the five senses.
- Examples: apple, car, music, fragrance, texture.
Abstract Nouns:
- Names ideas, qualities, or conditions that cannot be seen or touched.
- Examples: freedom, love, intelligence, bravery, justice.
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable Nouns:
- Can be counted, have singular and plural forms.
- Examples: cat/cats, book/books, idea/ideas.
Uncountable Nouns:
- Cannot be counted, often do not have a plural form.
- Examples: water, sugar, information, rice.
Collective Nouns
- Names a group of people or things.
- Examples: team, family, herd, audience, class.
- Can take singular or plural verb forms depending on context (British vs. American English).
Compound Nouns
- Made up of two or more words.
- Can be written as one word, hyphenated, or as separate words.
- Examples: toothpaste, mother-in-law, high school.
Pronouns
Pronouns replace nouns in a sentence to avoid repetition and aid in fluency.
Personal Pronouns
- Refer to a specific person or thing.
- Subjective case: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
- Objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
- Examples: “She went to the store.” “They gave it to us.”
Possessive Pronouns
- Show ownership or possession.
- Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
- Examples: “The book is mine.” “Is this pen yours?”
Reflexive Pronouns
- Refer back to the subject of the sentence.
- Examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
- Examples: “She made herself a sandwich.” “They prepared themselves for the exam.”
Relative Pronouns
- Introduce relative clauses and link them to the rest of the sentence.
- Examples: who, whom, whose, which, that.
- Examples: “The student who studied hard passed the exam.” “The book that you gave me is interesting.”
Demonstrative Pronouns
- Point to specific things.
- Examples: this, that, these, those.
- Examples: “This is delicious.” “Those are my shoes.”
Indefinite Pronouns
- Refer to nonspecific people or things.
- Examples: someone, anyone, everyone, no one, something, anything, everything, nothing.
- Examples: “Someone left their bag.” “Nothing is impossible.”
Interrogative Pronouns
- Used to ask questions.
- Examples: who, whom, whose, which, what.
- Examples: “Who is at the door?” “Which is your favorite?”
Verbs
Verbs express actions, states, or occurrences.
Action Verbs
- Show what the subject does.
- Examples: run, jump, eat, think.
- Examples: “He runs every morning.” “She thought about the question.”
Linking Verbs
- Connect the subject to a subject complement.
- Examples: be (am, is, are, was, were), seem, become.
- Examples: “She is a doctor.” “The soup tastes delicious.”
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive Verbs:
- Take a direct object.
- Examples: “She reads books.” “They built a house.”
Intransitive Verbs:
- Do not take a direct object.
- Examples: “He sleeps.” “The flowers bloom.”
Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs
- Help the main verb to form tenses, moods, and voices.
- Examples: be, have, do, can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.
- Examples: “She is running.” “They have finished.”
Modal Verbs
- Express necessity, possibility, permission, or ability.
- Examples: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.
- Examples: “You must study.” “He can swim.”
Phrasal Verbs
- Consist of a verb and one or more particles.
- Examples: look up, run out of, get over, take off.
- Examples: “She looked up the information.” “He ran out of time.”
Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns.
Descriptive Adjectives
- Describe qualities or states.
- Examples: big, blue, intelligent, old.
- Examples: “A big house.” “An intelligent student.”
Quantitative Adjectives
- Indicate quantity.
- Examples: some, many, few, several, two.
- Examples: “Several students.” “Two apples.”
Demonstrative Adjectives
- Point out specific nouns.
- Examples: this, that, these, those.
- Examples: “This book.” “Those cars.”
Possessive Adjectives
- Show ownership.
- Examples: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
- Examples: “My book.” “Their house.”
Interrogative Adjectives
- Used in questions.
- Examples: which, what, whose.
- Examples: “Which color?” “Whose book?”
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Comparative Adjectives:
- Compare two things.
- Examples: bigger, smarter, more beautiful.
- Examples: “She is taller than him.”
Superlative Adjectives:
- Compare more than two things.
- Examples: biggest, smartest, most beautiful.
- Examples: “She is the tallest in the class.”
Adverbs
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Types of Adverbs (Manner, Time, Place, Frequency, Degree)
Adverbs of Manner:
- Describe how something is done.
- Examples: quickly, slowly, carefully.
Adverbs of Time:
- Describe when something happens.
- Examples: now, later, yesterday.
Adverbs of Place:
- Describe where something happens.
- Examples: here, there, everywhere.
Adverbs of Frequency:
- Describe how often something happens.
- Examples: always, never, sometimes.
Adverbs of Degree:
- Describe the intensity or degree.
- Examples: very, quite, almost.
Comparative and Superlative Adverbs
Comparative Adverbs:
- Compare two actions.
- Examples: faster, more carefully.
Superlative Adverbs:
- Compare more than two actions.
- Examples: fastest, most carefully.
Position of Adverbs in a Sentence
- Can appear at the beginning, middle, or end.
- Examples: “Quickly, he ran to the store.” “He ran quickly to the store.”
Prepositions
Prepositions show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence.
Prepositions of Time
- Examples: at, on, in, before, after.
- Examples: “He will arrive at 5 PM.” “She was born in July.”
Prepositions of Place
- Examples: at, on, in, under, over, between.
- Examples: “The book is on the table.” “She lives in New York.”
Prepositions of Movement
- Examples: to, from, through, across, into.
- Examples: “They walked to the park.” “She moved from London.”
Prepositional Phrases
- Begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun.
- Examples: “in the morning,” “on the table.”
- Examples: “She reads in the morning.” “The cat is on the table.”
Conjunctions
Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses.
Coordinating Conjunctions
- Examples: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
- Examples: “She likes tea and coffee.” “He was tired but happy.”
Subordinating Conjunctions
- Introduce dependent clauses.
- Examples: because, although, since, unless, while.
- Examples: “She left because she was tired.” “Although it was late, he stayed.”
Correlative Conjunctions
- Pairs of conjunctions that work together.
- Examples: either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also.
- Examples: “Either you come, or I will go.” “Not only did she sing, but also danced.”
Conjunctive Adverbs
- Link independent clauses.
- Examples: however, therefore, moreover, consequently, otherwise.
- Examples: “He was tired; however, he finished the work.” “She missed the bus; therefore, she was late.”
Interjections
Interjections express emotions or sudden bursts of feelings.
Common Interjections
- Examples: oh, wow, ouch, hey, alas.
- Examples: “Oh! I didn’t see you there.” “Wow, that’s amazing!”
Usage and Punctuation of Interjections
- Usually followed by an exclamation point or a comma.
- Examples: “Hey, where are you going?” “Ouch! That hurt.”
Sentence Structure
Types of Sentences
Declarative Sentences:
- Make a statement.
- Examples: “She loves ice cream.” “He is reading a book.”
Interrogative Sentences:
- Ask a question.
- Examples: “Do you like ice cream?” “What is he reading?”
Imperative Sentences:
- Give a command or request.
- Examples: “Close the door.” “Please sit down.”
Exclamatory Sentences:
- Express strong emotion.
- Examples: “What a beautiful day!” “I can’t believe it!”
Sentence Elements
Subject and Predicate:
- Subject: who or what the sentence is about.
- Predicate: what the subject is doing or being.
- Examples: “The cat (subject) is sleeping (predicate).”
Objects:
- Direct Object: receives the action of the verb.
- Examples: “She read the book.” (book is the direct object)
- Indirect Object: to whom or for whom the action is done.
- Examples: “She gave him a gift.” (him is the indirect object)
Complements:
- Subject Complement: follows a linking verb and describes the subject.
- Examples: “He is a doctor.” (doctor is the subject complement)
- Object Complement: follows and modifies or refers to a direct object.
- Examples: “They elected him president.” (president is the object complement)
Sentence Patterns
Simple Sentences:
- Contain one independent clause.
- Examples: “She writes.” “The sun sets.”
Compound Sentences:
- Contain two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or semicolon.
- Examples: “She writes, and he reads.” “The sun sets; it rises.”
Complex Sentences:
- Contain one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
- Examples: “She writes because she enjoys it.” “Although it was late, he continued working.”
Compound-Complex Sentences:
- Contain two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
- Examples: “She writes, and he reads because he enjoys it.” “The sun sets, and the stars appear, although it is cloudy.”
Clauses
Independent Clauses:
- Can stand alone as a sentence.
- Examples: “She sings.” “He runs.”
Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses:
- Cannot stand alone and depend on the main clause.
- Examples: “Because she sings.” “When he runs.”
Noun Clauses:
- Function as a noun in the sentence.
- Examples: “What he said was surprising.” “I believe that she is honest.”
Adjective Clauses:
- Modify nouns or pronouns.
- Examples: “The book that she wrote is amazing.” “The man who called is my friend.”
Adverb Clauses:
- Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
- Examples: “He left when it started to rain.” “She sings as if she were a bird.”
Phrases
Noun Phrases:
- Consist of a noun and its modifiers.
- Examples: “The big house,” “A very interesting book.”
Verb Phrases:
- Consist of a verb and its auxiliaries.
- Examples: “She is singing,” “They have finished.”
Prepositional Phrases:
- Begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun.
- Examples: “In the morning,” “On the table.”
Gerund Phrases:
- Begin with a gerund (verb + ing) and function as a noun.
- Examples: “Swimming in the ocean,” “Running a marathon.”
Infinitive Phrases:
- Begin with an infinitive (to + verb) and can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
- Examples: “To win the game,” “To read quickly.”
Participial Phrases:
- Begin with a present or past participle and act as an adjective.
- Examples: “Running down the street,” “Excited by the news.”
Modifiers
Adjectival Modifiers:
- Describe or modify a noun or pronoun.
- Examples: “A beautiful painting,” “The old house.”
Adverbial Modifiers:
- Describe or modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb.
- Examples: “She sings beautifully,” “He ran quickly.”
Placement of Modifiers:
- Should be placed as close as possible to the word they modify to avoid confusion.
- Examples: “She only eats vegetables” vs. “She eats only vegetables.”
Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers:
- Dangling: The modifier does not clearly modify any word in the sentence.
- Examples: “Walking to school, the trees were beautiful.” (Incorrect)
- Corrected: “Walking to school, I found the trees were beautiful.”
- Misplaced: The modifier is not placed next to the word it modifies, causing confusion.
- Examples: “She almost drove her kids to school every day.” (Incorrect)
- Corrected: “She drove her kids to school almost every day.”
Verb Tense
Simple Tenses
Present Simple:
- Describes habits, general truths, and repeated actions.
- Examples: “She writes.” “The sun rises.”
Past Simple:
- Describes completed actions in the past.
- Examples: “She wrote.” “The sun rose.”
Future Simple:
- Describes actions that will happen in the future.
- Examples: “She will write.” “The sun will rise.”
Continuous (Progressive) Tenses
Present Continuous:
- Describes ongoing actions happening now.
- Examples: “She is writing.” “The sun is rising.”
Past Continuous:
- Describes ongoing actions that were happening in the past.
- Examples: “She was writing.” “The sun was rising.”
Future Continuous:
- Describes ongoing actions that will be happening in the future.
- Examples: “She will be writing.” “The sun will be rising.”
Perfect Tenses
Present Perfect:
- Describes actions that happened at an unspecified time before now.
- Examples: “She has written.” “The sun has risen.”
Past Perfect:
- Describes actions that were completed before another action in the past.
- Examples: “She had written.” “The sun had risen.”
Future Perfect:
- Describes actions that will be completed before a specified time in the future.
- Examples: “She will have written.” “The sun will have risen.”
Perfect Continuous Tenses
Present Perfect Continuous:
- Describes actions that began in the past and continue to the present.
- Examples: “She has been writing.” “The sun has been rising.”
Past Perfect Continuous:
- Describes actions that were ongoing in the past up to another past action.
- Examples: “She had been writing.” “The sun had been rising.”
Future Perfect Continuous:
- Describes actions that will be ongoing up to a specified future time.
- Examples: “She will have been writing.” “The sun will have been rising.”
Irregular Verbs
Common Irregular Verbs:
- Examples: go/went/gone, see/saw/seen, take/took/taken.
Patterns in Irregular Verbs:
- Grouped by similar changes.
- Examples: sing/sang/sung, ring/rang/rung.
Usage and Functions
Expressing Habitual Actions:
- Present Simple for regular habits.
- Examples: “She writes every day.”
Expressing Completed Actions:
- Past Simple for finished actions.
- Examples: “She wrote a book last year.”
Describing Ongoing Actions:
- Present Continuous for current actions.
- Examples: “She is writing a letter.”
Indicating Future Plans or Intentions:
- Future Simple for planned actions.
- Examples: “She will write a report.”
Subject-Verb Agreement
Basic Rules
Singular and Plural Subjects:
- Singular subjects take singular verbs.
- Examples: “She writes.”
- Plural subjects take plural verbs.
- Examples: “They write.”
Singular and Plural Verbs:
- Singular verbs often end in -s.
- Examples: “She runs.”
- Plural verbs do not end in -s.
- Examples: “They run.”
Special Cases
Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects:
- Singular: anyone, everyone, someone, nobody.
- Examples: “Everyone is here.”
- Plural: few, many, several.
- Examples: “Few are coming.”
Compound Subjects:
- Joined by “and” take a plural verb.
- Examples: “She and her friend are coming.”
- Joined by “or” or “nor,” the verb agrees with the closest subject.
- Examples: “Neither she nor her friends are coming.”
Collective Nouns:
- Can be singular or plural based on context.
- Examples: “The team is winning.” (acting as a single unit)
- Examples: “The team are arguing.” (acting individually)
Titles of Single Entities:
- Always take a singular verb.
- Examples: “The United States is large.”
Intervening Words
Prepositional Phrases:
- Do not affect subject-verb agreement.
- Examples: “The bouquet of flowers is beautiful.”
Relative Clauses:
- Subject of the clause determines the verb.
- Examples: “The book that is on the table is mine.”
Other Modifiers:
- Do not affect subject-verb agreement.
- Examples: “The boy, along with his friends, is here.”
Inverted Sentences
Questions:
- The subject follows the verb.
- Examples: “Is she coming?”
Sentences Beginning with “Here” or “There”:
- The subject follows the verb.
- Examples: “There are many options.”
Special Verb Forms
Linking Verbs:
- Connect the subject to additional information.
- Examples: “He is a teacher.”
Auxiliary Verbs:
- Help form different tenses.
- Examples: “She has finished.”
Pronoun Agreement
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Singular and Plural Antecedents:
- Pronouns must agree in number.
- Examples: “Each student must bring their book.”
Compound Antecedents:
- Pronouns agree with the closest antecedent.
- Examples: “Neither the teacher nor the students have their books.”
Collective Nouns as Antecedents:
- Can be singular or plural based on context.
- Examples: “The team is winning its game.”
Indefinite Pronouns as Antecedents:
- Singular: anyone, everyone, someone, nobody.
- Examples: “Everyone must do their best.”
Case Agreement
Subjective Case:
- Used for subjects of sentences.
- Examples: “He is here.”
Objective Case:
- Used for objects of verbs or prepositions.
- Examples: “She gave him the book.”
Possessive Case:
- Used to show ownership.
- Examples: “This is her book.”
Consistency in Point of View
First Person:
- Speaker’s point of view.
- Examples: “I am here.”
Second Person:
- Listener’s point of view.
- Examples: “You are here.”
Third Person:
- Person being spoken about.
- Examples: “He is here.”
Gender Agreement
Masculine and Feminine Pronouns:
- He/him/his, she/her/hers.
- Examples: “He is here.” “She is here.”
Gender-Neutral Pronouns:
- They/them/their.
- Examples: “They are here.”
Singular “They”:
- Used for a person whose gender is unknown or to be inclusive.
- Examples: “Each student must bring their book.”
Common Errors
Ambiguous Antecedents:
- Make sure it’s clear which noun the pronoun refers to.
- Examples: “When Sarah and Mary arrived, she was tired.” (unclear)
- Corrected: “When Sarah and Mary arrived, Sarah was tired.”
Shifts in Pronoun Number or Gender:
- Avoid changing pronouns mid-sentence.
- Examples: “If a student wants to succeed, they must study.” (incorrect shift in number)
- Corrected: “If students want to succeed, they must study.”